October 19 - Yorktown

On this day in 1781 at Yorktown VA, British general Lord Cornwallis surrendered his entire army to the combined American and French forces.  It represented the last serious engagement of the Revolutionary War and led directly to the opening of peace talks.  The result was victory in the American Revolution, and recognition of the new United States of America by the former mother country – and antagonist – Great Britain. 

After years of marginal success by George Washington against the British, he devised a master strategic stroke at Yorktown.  Washington learned that Cornwallis had fortified his army there, and that a British fleet on its way to support him had been turned back.  Instead, a large French fleet was sailing towards Yorktown and Washington decided to move his entire army there from New York.  Working in concert with a French army which had joined the fight against Britain, Washington had by late September surrounded the British. 

When French warships arrived off Yorktown instead of British vessels, Cornwallis knew it was only a matter of time.  With each passing day the Americans and French moved closer to the British lines, firing their artillery with great effect.  Alexander Hamilton led a daring attack during the siege.  The big guns of French ships-of-the-line began pounding the British positions from the sea. 

Finally, Cornwallis sent a message to Washington asking for surrender terms.  Washington accepted and on October 19 the British army of nearly 8,000 marched past the Americans and French and laid down their weapons.  The band played a popular song “The World Turned Upside Down” as the British marched away.  Cornwallis, pleading illness, was not present to surrender to Washington.  He regarded it as too great an indignity to hand his sword to the American commander-in-chief. 

Although there was sporadic fighting for the next few months (news travelled slowly in the 1780s) the Yorktown victory was the effective end to the Revolutionary War.  Recall that the struggle for independence had taken more than 25 years, starting with resistance to the Stamp Act in 1765.  How many of us would devote a quarter century to the fight for freedom?  I hope the answer is - all of us.

(And thanks to the Dutch for their financial support!)

When in Rome

If you visit Rome, you are confronted with ruins at every turn.  These great piles of stone, which served as quarries to later generations, are the visible presence of the Roman Empire.  It would be difficult to overstate the importance, the influence of Rome and its empire on the western world.  Today, it is the crowded and bustling capital of Italy, containing the Vatican within its boundaries.  Grand enough, and filled with urban wonders; but once it was the capital of an empire that stretched from Britain to Persia, from Germany to Egypt, that reigned over 25% of humanity.

The empire lasted in its earlier form for four centuries, and in its later, eastern (Byzantine) form for another thousand years.  Its influence is profound even to our day.  We copy its architecture, while still enjoying the Pantheon and the Colosseum. Many of the names of European nations, cities and regions derive from what the Romans called them.  Even the word Europe is after Europa, a Roman goddess.  And Roman law is foundational to most western legal traditions and customs. 

Up through the early 20^th century, to be considered an educated person one had to learn Latin, the everyday tongue of imperial Rome.  Cicero was required reading, and Caesar’s Commentaries; so was the Greek epic, the Iliad - as it was for a Roman boy or girl of the 2nd century.  Of course, the Romans adopted much from ancient Athens and thus preserved and promoted the achievements of the Greek golden age.

For Roman Catholics, Rome is the center of religious tradition and Church organization.  The Vatican is an independent state surrounded by the city of Rome, with Pope Francis at its head. The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, and St. Peter’s basilica is the largest Christian religious building on earth.  

Italy is, no surprise, nearly 100% Roman Catholic.  But Italy has been a unified nation for only 150 years; Rome, the “Eternal City” is nearly 3000 years old, and still exerts a profound influence on our culture and imagination.